Thursday, January 1, 2015

XACC/290 Principles of Accounting I

This post is much of my work that I did for this course, My hope is that it might guide a future student as they learn the basics of Accounting.

Financial Statements


There are four basic ways to communicate financial information with users. These four are known as a balance sheet, an income statement, a retained earnings statement and a statement of cash flow (Kimmel, Weygandt, & Kieso, 2011, p. 11.). In the paragraphs that follow each of these will be explained and their functionality to internal and external users will be provided.
The balance sheet demonstrates what a business owns and owes at a given point in time (Kimmel, Weygandt, & Kieso, 2011, p. 14.). External users look at a balance sheet assess the proportion of debt and equity to make decisions such as the likelihood of repayment if they lend the company money (Kimmel, Weygandt, & Kieso, 2011, p. 14.). Internal users use the balance sheet financial statement to determine if they have the cash needed to meet immediate cash needs(Kimmel, Weygandt, & Kieso, 2011, p. 14.).
An income statement shows the results of operations for a period of time (Kimmel, Weygandt, & Kieso, 2011, p. 12.). External users utilize an income statement to make predictions about a company’s future earning potential (Kimmel, Weygandt, & Kieso, 2011, p. 12.). Internal users look at an income statement to asses if they have been profitable during the operation period.
A retained earnings statement reflects what portion of a company’s profit during an operation period are not paid in dividends but rather retained for growth (Kimmel, Weygandt, & Kieso, 2011, p. 13.). External users are able to use this tool to assess the dividend payment practices (Kimmel, Weygandt, & Kieso, 2011, p. 13.). Internal users look to this statement to understand potential reduction in ability to repay debts as part of the profit during that operational period was used to pay dividends to investors (Kimmel, Weygandt, & Kieso, 2011, p. 13.).
The statement of cash flow provides information on cash receipts and payments during a specified time period (Kimmel, Weygandt, & Kieso, 2011, p. 15.). Those outside of a company will look to see what the increase or decrease in cash was during the specified period of time (Kimmel, Weygandt, & Kieso, 2011, p. 15.). Both internal and external users will look to see where cash came from and how it was used during the specified time (Kimmel, Weygandt, & Kieso, 2011, p. 15.).
Conclusion
The above four types of financial statements are the core statements used to look at a company’s financial standings.  Each of the above four types of financial statement serves an explicit purpose and the information presented interrelates (Kimmel, Weygandt, & Kieso, 2011, p. 16.). The four types of statements are a balance sheet, an income statement, a retained earnings statement and a statement of cash flow (Kimmel, Weygandt, & Kieso, 2011, p. 11.). 

Reference
                                                                                                                                                                                           



The difference between accrual and cash accounting

Accrual accounting is the most common form of accounting, it recognizes revenues as earned and expense as incurred. Cash accounting is most commonly found in small businesses, this process recognized revenue as received and expense as paid (mattfisher64, 2010).
An example of the two is as follows. A company pays $19,000 for 19months rent on December 1st 2014.
In accrual accounting this would be charged as incurred.

2014                            2015                            2016
$1,000                         $12,000                       $6,000


In cash accounting this would be charged as paid

2014                            2015                2016
$19,000                       0                      0

Accrual accounting is based upon two principles; the revenue recognition principle that recognizes revenue when earned regardless of if payment was received (Kimmel, Weygandt & Kieso, P. 166). The expense recognition principle companies recognized expense when incurred regardless of it payment was made (Kimmel, Weygandt & Kieso, P. 166). These principles are in place to reduce fraud and are part of the GAAP (Generally Accepted Accounting Principles)
The most common alternative accounting to the accrual basis is the cash basis (Kimmel, Weygandt & Kieso, P. 166).  The cash basis of accounting is not in compliance with generally accepted accounting principles; it is most often seen in use by individual or small businesses. There are no examples of when its acceptable to use cash basis accounting under the generally accepted accounting principles as it violates the revenue recognition principle of recognizing cash when earned  (Kimmel, Weygandt & Kieso, P. 166).



References


Mattfisher64. (2010, May 18). Accrual and Cash Basis Accounting- Ch.3 Video 1




Reversing Entries



Reversing entries are the final step in the accounting cycle. This is an optional step used to revers or cancel out adjusting journal entries from the previous accounting period (reversing entries). The uses of reversing entries are commonly seen with accounts such as wages where they stretch between tow accounting cycles. There are pros and cons to using reversing entries.
The pros of using reversing entries include but are not limited to the following two examples.
·         Use to fix mistakes. Reversing entries can be used to fix mistakes such as miscounting supplies at the close of an accounting period.
·         Simplified accounting entry. Often people other than accountants are responsible for entering in information, such as HR payroll. These individual are not accountants and are often asked to just enter the wages payable every pay period and are not as familiar with accounting and wages impact when they cover two accounting cycles.
In both of these examples the accountant can use reversing entries to account for and allow the process to move forward in an understandable manor.
The cons of using reversing entries are based upon accounting preferences. They do generate added steps and with more entries there is greater risk for errors. Overstating or understating accounts become risk when utilizing reversing entries.
This image below provided a visual example of what the accounting would look like first without reversing entries and then with reversing entries (The Reporting Cycle).


In Conclusion Reversing entries are option because there is no difference in the accounting outcomes if you do or do not use them. Reversing entries are an accounting tool that has pros and cons. They are an optional tool as they have no impact on the outcomes.


References

4 - The Nature of Optional Reversing Entries. (n.d.). Retrieved November 22, 2014, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5fGQze6Bagk

Chapter 4 - The Reporting Cycle. (n.d.). Retrieved November 23, 2014, from http://jeryanh.wordpress.com/2010/03/28/chapter-4-the-reporting-cycle/


Reversing Entries | Accounting | Example. (n.d.). Retrieved November 23, 2014, from http://www.myaccountingcourse.com/accounting-cycle/reversing-entries


COGS


The Cost of Goods Sold can be found on the income statement and is seen as an expense during the accounting cycle. The calculation of the Cost of Goods Sold is a straightforward formula. However the items included in the calculation of the Cost of Goods Sold is a more complex concept. The Cost of Goods Sold (COGS) basic formula looks like this:
COGS = Beginning Inventory + Purchases – Ending Inventory
When calculating the Cost of Goods Sold for a manufacturing company a slight adjustment is made to look like this:
COGS = Beginning Finished Inventory + Cost of Goods Manufactured – Ending Finished Goods Inventory
Now identifying what makes the COGS is slightly more complex. The simple answer is that it includes the items necessary in the production process. This in essence equates to that overhead expenses are not included. Things such as admin, sales and shipping are excluded from the COGS. Included are things such as inventory purchase, freight, repackaging expenses, parts, raw materials, labor and related labor expenses to create the goods, facilities directly used to make the product, warehouse space used during the manufacturing, machinery leases, production supplies, and any other cost directly related to the production to the goods. In conclusion the COGS are calculated by looking at what a company starts with added to what they purchase less what they have remaining at the end of the accounting period. Included in this is everything necessary in production of the goods but nothing that is overhead or selling of the goods.


Reference



SOX 2002


The Sarbanes- Oxley Act of 2002 was developed in repose to several large financial scandals in the 1990’s. While only publically traded companies are bound to comply with this act many others do as it is seen as a standard of quality accounting practices.  The Sarbanes- Oxley Act of 2002, frequently referred to as SOX has made significant impacts on accounting. One of the most well-known developments was that SOX was the catalyst of the creation of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board(PCAOB). PCAOB inspects audits and auditors of public companies. SOX has placed responsibility on the CEO’s of companies to sign quarterly accounting reports and created criminal penalties for those who falsely certify reports (Accounting practices in US).
The fourth title of the of the Sarbanes- Oxley provisions is focused on internal controls. This allowed/ encouraged companies to invest in internal controls in a way that was lacking prior to its development. Section 404 is what the act is now most known for and is purely focused on a company’s assessment of their internal controls. One strategy used frequently to meet internal controls is to identify those areas that are at higher risk and begin to implement entry level controls starting with the root cause of exceptions and errors and moving up the process. This allows companies to build value added and eliminated unnecessary involvement or steps ( GARP). Following the Sarbanes- Oxley act many companies are finding that their internal information is of a higher quality due to the strict compliance measures the act put forward.
In conclusion the Sarbanes- Oxley act has had significant impact on accounting practices and the focus on internal controls in the American business sector since its passing in 2002.



References
Accounting Practices in U.S. Public Companies. (n.d.). Retrieved December 20, 2014, from http://www.nysscpa.org/cpajournal/2006/1106/essentials/p28.htm
GARP - How Sarbanes-Oxley Has Affected Internal Controls and Compliance: A 10th Anniversary Review. (n.d.). Retrieved December 20, 2014, from http://www.garp.org/risk-news-and-resources/2012/august/how-sarbanes-oxley-has-affected-internal-controls-and-compliance.aspx


The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002. (n.d.). Retrieved December 20, 2014, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wuoNGP5vh1k
Sarbanes-Oxley Impacts. (n.d.). Retrieved December 20, 2014, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dje9UEnWTvw



Saturday, January 22, 2011

Introduction to Public Administration and Governance, PA 201



 
Bureaucracy is the anti creativity [1]

Bureaucracy has an array of meanings and applications. I primarily think of it as the framework to implement and process, directives from policy makers to the public and will use it as such over the next few pages. I have identified several areas of exploration within the framework of bureaucracy. They begin with the creativity involved in policy creation; continue on with the details of bureaucracy, leading to efficiency and a broad overview of some of the positives and negatives in the bureaucracy framework.

Policy making is an incredibly creative process, from idea generation and expression, to persuasion, adaptation and finally ratification those involved are consistently looking for the answer to how to go about what is needed next. Policy makers have a framework they must follow in policy creation however that framework excludes the informal and subtle activities that are necessary for policy ratification, therefore leaving a huge expanse for creativity. Bureaucracy is the anti creativity. The development of the bureaucracy was creative. With a bit of imagination one could even theorize that bureaucracy was developed by political figures as a protective system, designed to protect them from potentially unstable political environments. Bureaucracy and creativity collaborate whenever a new policy is introduced in the system.  After these points of entry creativity on all practical levels is over.

Bureaucracy has developed into an expansive and detailed framework where each person knows there role and the steps they must follow when fulfilling their role. In many countries it is standardized and predictable if not efficient. Bureaucracy is the epitome of a formal organization. Dr. Co, Dean of UP NCPAG said in one of her class lectures that this standard or rule is what makes public administration universally applicable and regarded as a science. Policy implementation has been developing into modern bureaucracy for centuries with early stages visible within the church. The rationale behind this rigid and formal process is that it will enable distribution of authority and tasks, allowing for transparency and large scale administration activities. Distributing authority to appointed or hired personal has raised some questions in democratic societies regarding representation of the people in government. These factors have come together to create a bureaucracy that has eliminated creativity.

With the creativity gone efficiency suffers. In distributing tasks layers have developed within the system creating a bureaucracy that is seen as inefficient and ineffective. I read in an online news source called marketing week that: bureaucracy is; having to wade through pages of complex instructions and processes. The primary objective of, implementing and processing policy, is fulfilled through a detailed step by step formula where each participant has a specific role. Clear participant role formulas, are a business strategy primarily used to reduce or eliminate uncertainty in the environment. This specialization requires numerous people to be involved in every process thus leading to a time delay.  

In many systems specialization has proved to be the most efficient and effective way to deliver a product, think Mc Donald’s. In many bureaucracies’s however the service or product does not pass directly from one person to the next, it is often required to receive review or validation before its next stage. The process of passing becomes disjointed when all officials are not working in a line. Service and products have to pass from one building to another, one office to the next; this requires the use of another medium, a courier, phone call, e-mail or other such source. This added medium increases time and inefficiency.

As specialization has become further cemented in today’s bureaucracy it has increasingly suffered from the restriction of human behavior. Humans are innately creative. Giving those working in a bureaucracy freedom intensifies the previous question of appointed or hired governmental personnel in a representative democracy, simultaneously creating the possibility for the innate human creativity to come into practice. Bureaucracy is not however a lost cause of restriction and specialization.

Benefits of bureaucracy can include job creation, accountability, traceability and academic logic. In many nations government employs close to 1/3 of the work force, a fully flushed out bureaucracy giving many employment options. Clear job roles remove any questions about who was responsible for a specific stage of a process. Any action has a clear path to follow enabling (those who wish to know) tracing of movement.  Many academics have put thought and logic into the creation of the bureaucracy concept providing sound logic and examples of its effectiveness.

Alternately, bureaucracy can result in many ways the opposite of its benefits. Overly large government sectors have resulted in over budget government and unstable economies. Bureaucracy has a lack of accountability. When everyone is involved no one is responsible or accountable for the whole, in some systems resulting in slow delivery, poorly done components and even failure to respond. Academics who have praised bureaucracy are matched by those who critique finding faults not only in the structure but great flaws in practice. Humanity is a difficult aspect to fully predict and understand. When creating a framework that is greatly dependent on human behavior and response many assumptions and risks are involved. Educated measures can be taken however only in practice will the inconsistencies be found. Bureaucracy suffers from numerous human behavior responses, the negatives which I have expanded upon in the preceding paragraphs.

Bureaucracy is greatly intertwined in our society and it is hard to imagine a world without it. That in mind I would support a system that enable greater creativity. Finding a balance of good service delivery, sound business practice, minimization of systematic negatives and creativity is a task that will require concentrated and deliberate effort to achieve.  Bureaucracy is not a lost cause the strength and achievements of the system have created a strong system that will withstand future revisions and developments.



[1] Image from Ben Tremblay

Introduction to Public Administration and Governance, PA 201




Promote the highest possible standard of living for a nation


At what point does our history transform from being something that shapes us; to something that we mealy learn about? Or even is there such a point? I believe that there is, the fact that my ancestors were most probably farmers is knowledge I have only by being taught, and it has no translation into what I am today. A hundred years ago my family was able to grow enough food to feed the family and to sell to others; I cannot even grow a small vegetable plot. Similarly how connected are people to their ancestors that operated small independent governing systems?  If at some point in your regions history you were governed in a local and direct way; does that make you skilled at self rule? I often hear the idea that central government is a colonial installation and therefore foreign and unfit for one country or another and while I am not necessarily in favor of a centralized system I question this argument.
The social and potential economic benefits of a decentralized or federalist state have been realized in countries such as Canada and Brazil. The centralized system has found longevity and success in countries such as Denmark and Saudi Arabia.
Take the idea that most citizens of the majority of countries that historically operated in a decentralized system and were formerly colonized are no longer shaped by their historical decentralization. Combing this concept with the idea that both decentralized and centralized systems have found success within differing regions I believe the conversation needs to change from how to restore a decentralized system to; is a decentralized or federalist system going to promote the highest possible standard of living for a nation?
After reading the articles Decentralization Towards Democratization and Development in the Asian Pacific Region By Guzman and Reforma and Decentralization and Local Autonomy: A Framework for Assessing Progress by Ocampo I find that my initial assessment of the potential success and challenges of decentralization are widely apparent in Asia. China, Malaysia and Thailand all centralized to foster development and growth only later to decentralize to varying degrees. Korea and the Philippines have seen the decentralization process paused by military take over and India decentralized under the British rule that local taxation should be linked to local administration and responsibility.
I see an alternative understanding of the historical argument for decentralization. I wonder if it is indeed based on the concept that our ancestors shapes us or if it is based on the idea that a decentralized system worked in the former time and place, why not try it again? This, try it again idea, has much to support its potential repeat success. Many nations have found success under decentralized systems.  Decentralization is a strategy that can be used to foster development and growth. Often decentralization has a policy basis an important tool that when used with other materials, such as a willing and skilled population can create an effective decentralized system. The other side is that places have been and most likely will continue to be impaired by decentralization attempts. These impairments are most easily seen by the increasing power of local elites while the poor continue to suffer corruption grows and the national government becomes weaker.
In the Philippine context decentralization has had mixed effects and appears to be in need of an array of changes. Underlying this imperfect decentralization is the remnants of colonial structures. Political families were installed by the Spanish and Americans who still dominate the offices. The imperfect American system of decentralization for control can still be felt in the country. In order to revitalizes decentralization in the Philippines the island nature of the country must be considered at all stages. For many aspects local control will provide faster service delivery and reflect the unique needs of the group living in a certain area. Other areas need to remain in central control. Keeping central control over areas that are prone to corruption, require stability of pay and personnel or benefit from maintaining national standards would benefit development.  If I were to make policy change recommendations I would keep roads, city healthcare workers and minimal education standards under central control. Keeping some aspects under central control would allow the smaller units to focus on fewer tasks allowing them to develop greater effectiveness. Central control over specified areas and local control over others should help curb the human tendency to centralization based on a desire for ultimate power.
A system closer resembling federalism would create the highest possible standard of living in the Philippines. Each nation as it explores how to evolve will be faced with the complex of how to move forward. Several areas must be examined as the path forward is created. First is recognizing the underlying meaning of the arguments, such as decentralizes because it is what was in place historically or decentralize because it has worked in the past and might work again. Second would be to examine the question of what is needed to foster the highest standard of living for the most people. Finally would be to acknowledged areas where potential problems are most likely to occur and develop safety mechanisms. Decentralized, Federalist and many other systems have the potential to find success if implemented correctly.